A tarihin kwayoyin sunadarai. A batun da darajar Organic Chemistry

'Yan mutane tunani game da abin da shi ne rawar da kwayoyin sunadarai a cikin rayuwar zamani mutum. Amma shi ne babbar, yana da wuya a overestimate. Da safe, a lokacin da wani mutum tana farkawa da ke zuwa a wanke, da kuma kyau a cikin maraice, a lokacin da ya ke zuwa gado, ya ci gaba da bi da kayayyakin da kwayoyin sunadarai. Buroshin hakori, tufafi, takarda, kayan shafawa, furniture da ciki zane, da kuma fiye da - duk wannan ya ba mu ita. Amma da zarar ya ba da hali, da kuma a kan kwayoyin sunadarai sani sosai kadan.

Bari mu ga yadda samo asali daga mataki zuwa mataki na tarihi da kwayoyin sunadarai.

1. A lokacin na ci gaba har da XIV karni, kira halitta.

2. XV - XVII karni - farkon na ci gaba ko iatrochemistry Alchemy.

3. Century XVIII - XIX - dominance ka'idar vitalism.

4. XIX - XX karni - m raya kasa, kimiyya mataki.

Fara ko na halitta da lokaci na ci gaba da kwayoyin sunadarai

Wannan lokaci kunshi da sosai zargin manufar sinadaran asalin. Kuma asalin tafi har da baya kamar yadda zamanin d Roma da kuma Misira, wanda suke da matukar m mazauna koya yi dyes ga rini abubuwa da kuma tufafi daga halitta albarkatun kasa - ganye da kuma mai tushe na shuke-shuke. Waɗannan su ne Indigo, ba da zurfin blue color, kuma alizorin batawa a zahiri duk m, kuma m tabarau na orange da kuma ja. Unusually nimble mazaunan daban-daban kasashe lokaci guda kuma ya koya yadda za a samu da vinegar, yin ruhohi daga sucrose da sitaci-dauke da abubuwa na shuka asalin.

An sani cewa wani sosai na kowa abinci a cikin aikace-aikace na wannan tarihi lokaci sun dabba fats, kayan lambu mai da kuma resins cewa ana amfani da chefs da healers. Kuma ma a cikin rayuwar yau da kullum na daban-daban poisons sun tam matsayin babban makami vnutriusobnyh dangantakar. Duk wadannan abubuwa ne kayayyakin da kwayoyin sunadarai.

Amma, abin takaici, kamar yadda irin wannan, manufar "sunadarai" ba ya wanzu, da kuma nazari na musamman da abubuwa domin ya bayyana da kaddarorin da kuma abun da ke ciki bai faruwa. Saboda haka, wannan zamani ne ake kira maras wata-wata. Duk binciken sun bazuwar, unfocused yanayin mabukaci dabi'u. Wannan ya ci gaba har na gaba karni.

iatrochemistry lokaci - mai alamar farko ci gaba

Lalle ne, shi ya kasance a cikin XVI - XVII ƙarni fara fito fili kai tsaye wakilci na sunadarai a matsayin kimiyya. Ta wurin aikin masana kimiyya wasu lokaci an samu kwayoyin abubuwa ƙirƙira sauki inji for barasan da sublimation abubuwa amfani na musamman sinadaran tasoshin ga crushing abubuwa da rabuwa da na halitta kayayyakin sinadaran.

The main mayar da hankali na cewa lokaci ya da magani. A marmarin samun da zama dole magunguna ya kai ga cewa da shuka tsaya muhimmanci mai da sauran albarkatun sinadaran. Saboda haka, Karl Scheele aka samu dama Organic acid daga kayan lambu raw kayan:

• malic.
• lemun tsami.
• gallic.
• madara.
• oxalic.

A cikin binciken na shuke-shuke, kuma da kasafi na wadannan acid masanin kimiyyar ya dauki shekaru 16 (1769 to 1785). Wannan shi ne farkon na ci gaba, aza harsashin ginin kwayoyin sunadarai, wanda shi ne kai tsaye kamar yadda wani reshe na sunadarai da aka gano da kuma mai suna baya (farkon XVIII karni).

A daidai wannan lokacin Tsakiya GF alama Rueil lu'ulu'u na uric acid daga urea. Sauran chemists succinic acid da aka samu daga amber, tartaric acid. A kowa yin amfani hada da hanyar da bushe barasan na shuka da dabbobi da kayayyakin, da wanda aka samu acetic acid, diethyl ether, itace barasa.

Haka abin ya fara da m ci gaban da kwayoyin sinadaran masana'antu a nan gaba.

Vis vitalis, ko "rayuwa karfi"

XVIII - XIX karni na kwayoyin sunadarai ne sosai biyu Musulunci: a daya hannun, akwai da dama daga binciken da suke da gagarumin darajar. A gefe, dogon lokaci, da girma da kuma jari na dacewa da ilmi da kuma daidai ideas hana rinjaye ka'idar vitalism.

Wannan ka'idar buga da kuma kayyade babban Jens Jakobs Berzelius, wanda a lokaci guda shi da kansa ya ba su, da kuma definition kwayoyin sunadarai (ainihin shekara ne ba a sani ba, ko 1807, ko 1808). Bisa ga kayan abinci na wannan ka'idar, Organic abubuwa za a iya kafa ne kawai a rayayyun kwayoyin halitta (shuke-shuke da dabbobi, ciki har da mutane), a matsayin kawai halittu masu rai suna da wata musamman "rayuwa karfi" da damar wadannan abubuwa samar. Duk da yake inorganic abubuwa samun kwayoyin cikakken yiwu ba, tun da sun kasance kayayyakin matattun, wadanda ba flammable, ba tare da Vis vitalis.

A wannan masana kimiyya na farko rarrabuwa na duk aka sani a lokacin da mahadi a cikin inorganic (maras rai, duk abubuwa kamar ruwa da gishiri) da kuma Organic (live, wadanda cewa kamar man zaitun da sugar) an samarwa. Har ila yau Berzelius farko kaddamarda musamman cewa irin kwayoyin sunadarai. Tabbatar da dalilin shi ne: wani sashe na sunadarai cewa karatu da abubuwa samu daga rayayyun kwayoyin halitta.

A wannan lokacin, masana kimiyya da sauƙi a aiwatar da hira da gudanar da mahadi a cikin inorganic, msl, da konewa. Duk da haka, da yiwuwar reconversion na wani abu, ba a sani ba tukuna.

Fate zai yi da shi, da cewa shi ne dalibi Jens Berzelius Fridrih Veler gudummawar da farkon na rushewar ka'idar da malaminsa.

Bajamushe masanin kimiyya aiki a kan cyanide mahadi, kuma a cikin daya daga cikin gwaje-gwaje kafin su sami lu'ulu'u kulawa Similar to uric acid. A sakamakon haka, a mafi sosai binciken ya gano cewa, da gaske gudanar don samun kwayoyin halitta daga inorganic, ba tare da wani Vis vitalis. Duk yadda m Berzelius, ya tilasta su shigar da wannan undeniable gaskiya. Saboda haka shi aka aikata na farko buga wa vitalistic views. A tarihin kwayoyin sunadarai fara samun lokacinta.

Da dama binciken, murƙushe vitalism

Wohler nasara ya yi wahayi zuwa chemists na XVIII karni, don haka ya fara tartsatsi gwaji da kuma gwaje-gwajen domin ya sami kwayoyin halitta a vitro. Irin wannan syntheses cewa ne m, kuma mafi muhimmanci an dama.

1. 1845 G. - Adolf Kolbe wanda ya almajiri Wohler, kulawa sauki inorganics C, H _2, Yã ₂ multistage total kira zuwa samu acetic acid, wanda shi ne wani Organic abu.
2. 1812, Konstantinom Kirhgofom aiwatar glucose kira daga sitaci da kuma acid.
3. 1820 Anri Brakonno denatured gina jiki acid sa'an nan bi da tare da nitric acid da kuma cakuda samu daga farko amino acid 20 hada daga baya - glycine.
4. 1809, da makamantansu Michel Chevreul karatu da abun da ke ciki na fats, kokarin raba su a cikin ta bijiro da batun kafa da aka gyara. A sakamakon haka, ya samu m acid da glycerol. 1854, Zhan Bertlo ci gaba aiki Chevrel glycerol kuma mai tsanani tare da stearic acid. Result - mai, daidai mayar da tsarin halitta mahadi. Daga baya, ya gudanar a samu da kuma sauran fats da mai, waɗanda suke dan kadan daban-daban a cikin kwayoyin tsarin daga halitta analogues. Wannan an nuna yiwuwar samun sabon gudanar da mahadi na bayar da muhimmanci a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje.
5. J. Berthelot hada methane daga hydrogen sulfide (H ₂ S) da kuma carbon disulfide (CS _2).
6. 1842 Zinin ya iya haduwa da aniline daga nitrobenzene fenti. Daga baya ya gudanar don samun yawan aniline dyes.
7. A. Bayer halitta da kansa dakin gwaje-gwaje, wanda ya kasance mai aiki da kuma nasara kira na Organic dyes, kama da na halitta: alizarin, indigoid, antrohinonovye, xanthene.
8. 1846 kira na nitroglycerin masana kimiyya Sobrero. Ya kuma ci gaba da ka'idar iri, wanda ya ce abubuwa kama wasu daga cikin inorganic da za a iya shirya ta maye gurbin hydrogen atoms a cikin tsarin.
9. 1861 A. M. Butlerov hada abun zaki na formalin. Suka tsara ta wurin arziki na ka'idar sinadaran tsarin gudanar da mahadi dacewa wa yau.

Duk wadannan da wasu binciken sun gano batun kwayoyin sunadarai - carbon da mahadi. Bugu da ari binciken sun mayar da hankali a kan sunadaran da sinadaran halayen a cikin kwayoyin sunadarai, ya tsayar da yanayi na lantarki interactions, kuma zuwa ga tsarin da mahadi.

The biyu da rabi na XIX da XX karni - wani lokaci na duniya sinadaran binciken

A tarihin kwayoyin sunadarai a kan lokaci ya halartar da dukan manyan canje-canje. Aiki da yawa da masana kimiyya a kan sunadaran da ciki matakai a kwayoyin, halayen da kuma tsarin da ya bada samu kyawawan sakamako. Saboda haka, a cikin 1857, Friedrich Kekule ɓullo da ka'idar valence. Yana kuma nasa ne da babban abin yabo - gano tsarin da kwayoyin na aromatic hydrocarbon benzene. A lokaci guda A. M. Butlerov tsara ka'idar tsarin matsayi na mahadi a wanda points zuwa carbon tetravalence da kuma sabon abu na wanzuwar isomers, kuma isomers.

VV Markovnikov kuma A. M. Zaytsev shiga cikin nazarin dauki sunadaran a cikin kwayoyin halittar da kuma kirkiro da wani sa na dokoki da bayyana wadannan sunadaran da kuma tabbatar da. A 1873 - 1875 shekaru. I. Wislicenus, Van't Hoff da kuma Le Bel nazarin sarari tsari na kwayoyin halitta a kwayoyin, bayyanãwa da wanzuwar sitiriyo-isomers, kuma suna da magabatan dukan kimiyya - stereochemistry. A yawa na mutane daban-daban da hannu a cikin halittar filin kwayoyin sunadarai, wanda muke da shi a yau. Saboda haka, kwayoyin sunadarai, masana kimiyya suna lura.

A ƙarshen XIX da XX karni - wani lokaci na duniya gano a cikin Pharmaceutical masana'antu, Paint masana'antu, jimla sunadarai. Ka yi la'akari da bude, don tabbatar da iyakar darajar kwayoyin sunadarai.

1. 1881 Conrad M. kuma M. Gudtseyt hada anesthetics, veronal da salicylic acid.
2. 1883 L. Knorr samu antipyrine.
3. 1884 F. Stoll samu pyramidon.
4. 1869 Hyatt yan'uwa lashe mutum na fari da aka yi da zare.
5. 1884 D. Eastman hada celluloid fim.
6. 1890 samu cuprammonium fiber L. Depassi.
7. 1891 Charles Cross da kuma abokan aiki samu Rayon.
8. 1897 F. Miescher da Buchner kafa ka'idar nazarin halittu hadawan abu da iskar shaka (cell-free fermentation aka gano da kuma enzymes matsayin biocatalysts).
9. 1897 F. Miescher gano nucleic acid.
10. A farkon karni na XX - sabon sunadarai na organometallic mahadi.
11. 1917 Lewis bude lantarki yanayin sinadaran da shaidu a cikin kwayoyin.
12. 1931 Hückel - kafa jimla sunadaran a cikin sunadarai.
13. Na 1931-1933. Laymus Pauling kuɓutar da rawa ka'idar, kuma daga baya ya co-ma'aikata bayyanãwa jigon trends a sinadaran halayen.
14. 1936 Nailan hada.
15. Na 1930-1940. AE Arbuzov bada Yunƙurin ga ci Organophosphorus mahadi wanda su ne tushen domin samar da robobi, magunguna, da kuma kwari.
16. 1960 Academician Nesmeyanov tare da dalibai halitta na farko roba abinci a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje.
17. 1963 Du Vinho samun insulin, wanda shi ne mai babbar mataki a gaba a magani.
18. 1968 India HG Alƙur'ãni gudanar don samun sauki gene cewa ya taimaka a deciphering kwayoyin code.

Saboda haka, da muhimmancin kwayoyin sunadarai a cikin rayuwar mutane kawai imbin. Robobi, polymers, zaruruwa, Paints da varnishes, roba, roba, PVC kayan, propylene da polyethylene, da kuma wasu zamani abubuwa, ba tare da wanda yau ne kawai ba zai yiwu rayuwa, hadaddun hanya zuwa ta samu. Daruruwan masana kimiyya sun sanya su shekaru na aiki tukuru, don haka akwai wani janar tarihi na ci gaba da kwayoyin sunadarai.

A zamani tsarin hanyoyin gudanar da mahadi

Bayan aikata wata babbar da wuya hanya zuwa ga ci gaba da kwayoyin sunadarai, da kuma yanzu ba su tsaya har yanzu. Akwai fiye da 10 Mill. Connections, kuma wannan adadin na karuwa a kowace shekara. Saboda haka, akwai tsanaki tsari tsarin da abubuwa da yake ba mu kwayoyin sunadarai. Nau'in gudanar da mahadi da aka gabatar a tebur.

A ajin na mahadi	tsarin fasali	A general dabara
Hydrocarbons (Ya sanya har na kawai carbon da hydrogen atoms)	cikakken (kawai sigma nauyin.). unsaturated (sigma kuma pi sadarwa.). acyclic. cyclic.	Alkanes C n H 2n + 2; Alkenes, cycloalkanes C n H 2n. Alkynes, alkadienes, C n H 2n-2. Arena C 6 H 2n-6.
Abubuwa dauke da daban-daban hetero kwayoyin halitta a cikin babban kungiya	halogens. OH kungiyar (alcohols da phenols). ra'ayoyi ROR (ethers).	R-Hal. R-OH. ROR.
carbonyl mahadi	aldehydes. ketones. quinones.	RC (H) = Ya
Mahadi dauke da wani carboxyl kungiyar	carboxylic acid. esters.	R-COOH. R-COOR.
Mahadi dauke da sulfur, nitrogen, ko phosphorus a cikin kwayoyin	Iya zama cyclic ko acyclic	-
organometallic mahadi	Carbon bonded kai tsaye zuwa ga sauran kashi, amma ba hydrogen	C-E
organometallic mahadi	Carbon bonded zuwa karfe	Tare da-Me
heterocyclic mahadi	A tsarin tushen sake zagayowar tare da mambobi ne na heteroatoms	-
halitta da abubuwa	Manyan polymer kwayoyin da cewa yin up da na halitta mahadi	sunadarai, nucleic acid, amino acid, alkaloids da kuma kama. d.
polymers	Abubuwa da ciwon high kwayoyin nauyi, wadda ake bisa monomeric raka'a	n (-RRR-)

A binciken da na dukan iri-iri na abubuwa da kuma halayen cikin abin da suka shiga, kuma shi ne batun kwayoyin sunadarai a yau.

Tattare da sunadarai shaidu a cikin kwayoyin da abubuwa

Ga wani mahadi halin elektronnostaticheskie interactions a cikin kwayoyin, wanda aka bayyana a gaban organics covalent iyakacin duniya da kuma wadanda ba na iyakacin duniya covalent shaidu. A organometallic mahadi iya samar da rauni ionic hulda.

Covalent nonpolar sadarwa yafaru tsakanin C-C ta maida martani duk kwayoyin sunadaran kwayoyin. Covalent iyakacin duniya interactions halayyar for daban-daban-nonmetal kwayoyin halitta a cikin kwayoyin. Alal misali, C-Hal, CH, CO, CN, CP, CS. Wannan shi ne duk saboda da kwayoyin sunadarai, wanda babu ga samuwar mahadi.

Bambance-bambance a cikin mahadi na dabarbari organics

Mafi na kowa dabarbari ga yawan membobin wani fili da ake kira empirical. Irin wannan dabarbari zama ga kowane daga cikin inorganic abu. Amma lokacin da ta je jawo sama dabarbari a cikin kwayoyin sunadarai, da masana kimiyya da fuska da dama matsaloli. Da fari dai, nauyi yawa daga gare su, daruruwan, ko ma dubban. Yana da wuya a ƙayyade empirical dabara domin irin wannan sararin abu. Saboda haka, tare da lokaci akwai wani shãmaki, kwayoyin sunadarai kamar yadda Organic analysis. Its kafa dauke masu bincike Liebig, Wohler, Gay-Lussac da Berzelius. Su, tare da ayyukan A. M. Butlerova, gano kasancewar isomers - mahadi da cewa suna da wannan ingantaccen da kuma gwada yawa abun da ke ciki, amma ya bambanta a tsarin da kaddarorin da kwayoyin. Wannan shi ne dalilin da ya sa tsarin gudanar da mahadi bayyana a yau shi ne ba empirical da kuma tsarin cikakken ko takaice tsarin dabara.

Wadannan Tsarin - halayyar da kuma rarrabe wanda shine kwayoyin sunadarai. A dabarbari aka rubuta ta amfani da dashes, shi ne sinadaran bond. msl, butane takaice tsarin dabara za su yi da tsari CH ₃ - CH ₂ - CH ₂ - CH _3. Cikakken tsarin dabara nuna duk sinadaran shaidu ba a cikin kwayoyin.

Har ila yau, akwai wata hanya na rikodin kwayoyin dabarbari na Organic mahadi. Ya dubi wannan matsayin empirical daga inorganic. Domin butane, misali, shi zai zama: C ₄ H _10. Wannan shi ne, kwayoyin dabara ya ba da wani ra'ayi kawai game da ingantaccen da kuma gwada yawa abun da ke ciki na fili. Tsarin faye hali bond a cikin DNA, don haka suka iya amfani da hasashen nan gaba hali da kuma sinadaran Properties daga cikin abu. Wadannan su ne siffofin da cewa yana da kwayoyin sunadarai. Dabarbari an rubuta su a wani tsari, kowane daga cikinsu gaskiya ne.

Iri halayen a cikin kwayoyin sunadarai

Akwai wasu rarrabuwa na da irin kwayoyin sunadarai halayen gudana. Kuma wasu daga wadannan nau'o'i, a kan daban-daban filaye. Ka yi la'akari da babban rabo.

Sassan sinadaran halayen a cikin hanyoyin da breaking da kuma bond samuwar:

• ko homolytic m.
• heterolytic ko ionic.

A halayen da iri-canje:

• sarkar m.
• nucleophilic aliphatic canzawa;
• nucleophilic aromatic canzawa;
• kawar dauki.
• electrophilic Bugu da kari;
• sandaro.
• cyclization.
• electrophilic canzawa;
• rearrangement dauki.

By hanyar gudu dauki (qaddamarwa) da kuma a kan sanadin motsi domin na dauki an kuma wani lokacin kasafta. Wadannan su ne ainihin fasali na halayen wanda yana da kwayoyin sunadarai. A ka'idar cewa ya bayyana cikakken bayani game da kowane hanya na wani sinadaran dauki, an bude a tsakiyar XX karni, da kuma tabbatar da supplemented har yanzu tare da kowane sabon samu da kuma kira.

Ya kamata a lura da cewa janar kwayoyin sunadarai halayen ci gaba a karkashin more stringent yanayi fiye da a inorganic sunadarai. Wannan shi ne saboda mafi girma karfafawa kwayoyin kwayoyin saboda da samuwar cikin da kuma karfi intermolecular Hadin. Saboda haka, kusan babu wani dauki da cikakken ba tare da kiwon da yawan zafin jiki, matsa lamba ko aikace-aikace na kara kuzari.

A zamani definition na Organic Chemistry

A general, ci gaban da kwayoyin sunadarai faruwa wani m hanya domin da dama ƙarni. Yana tara wata babbar adadin bayanai game da abubuwa, wa gininsu da kuma halayen cikin abin da suka iya shiga. Hada miliyoyin amfani da kawai ake bukata raw kayan amfani a cikin fannoni daban daban na ilimi, da fasaha da masana'antu. A ra'ayi na Organic sunadarai a yau, ana riskarsa kamar wani abu grand da kuma manyan, da yawa kuma hadaddun, bambancin da kuma muhimmanci.

A lokacin, na farko definition wannan babban sashe na sunadarai shi ne abin da ya Berzelius: yana da sunadarai da cewa karatu da abubuwa ware daga kwayoyin. Tun daga nan, da yawa lokaci ya wuce, sanya da yawa binciken, da kuma gane, kuma ya asirta wani babban yawan matakai vnutrihimicheskih sunadaran. A sakamakon haka, a yau akwai wani daban-daban manufar abin da kwayoyin sunadarai. Tabbatar da dalilin shi ne ba: da carbon sunadarai da kuma na ta mahadi, kuma su hanyoyin da kira.