Organic ka'idar da asalin

Kalmar "kwayoyin ka'idar" m polysemous. Mafi sau da yawa shi yana nufin biyu koyaswar game da sosai daban-daban tarbiyya - kimiyyar siyasa da kuma sunadarai. A cikin farko idan muna magana ne game da asalin na jihar, a karo na biyu - game da kaddarorin kwayoyin abubuwa. Ko da yake mawallafa na wadannan Concepts (Herbert Spencer da Alexander Butlerof) amsa a kan m fronts kimiyya, da suka yi amfani da kamar wannan ma'ana da kuma gudanar da bincike ka'idojin.

Ana zargin jihar

A cikin XIX karni a fannin kimiyyar siyasa ya bayyana kwayoyin ka'idar jihar. An samo asali kan wani dogon lokaci. Its farko Jigo za a iya samu ko da a cikin takardu na tsufa. Organic ka'idar tafasa saukar zuwa ne cewa jihar da aka dauke su a irin kama na jikin mutum.

Wannan ra'ayin da aka ciyar da wasu tsoho Greek gabascin. Alal misali, kamar yadda Aristotil ya yi ĩmãni. Its kwayoyin jihar ka'idar asalin shi ne wani misãli ba a cikin ni'imar da jihar da kuma al'umma, akwai rabuwa - su ne guda mahaluži. Saboda haka Aristotle jãyayya da cewa mutum - a zaman mutum, wanda ba zai iya rayuwa a kadaici daga waje duniya.

Spencer ta rukunan

A key ga wannan ka'idar adept a cikin XIX karni ya Herbert Spencer. Shi ya zama kafa na zamani magani daga kwayoyin ideas cikin ilimin halayyar zaman jama'a. Turanci zurfin tunani dauke jihar, na farko, daga jama'a hangen zaman gaba. Ya takaita da ra'ayoyi na magabata da kuma tsara wani sabon ka'idar. A cewar ta, a jihar - jama'a jiki, kunsha na mutane da yawa sassa. A talakawa mutane ne da ingancin wadannan "bayani".

Saboda haka, domin Spencer ta kwayoyin ka'idar jihar - da ra'ayin hujja da cewa jihar za ta zama kamar dai akwai al'ummar dan Adam. Wadannan biyu mamaki suna da yanayi rabuwa. A babbar tarin mutane ba zai iya samun tare ba tare da kungiyar na ikon, wanda zai iya tsara dangantakar cikin wannan tafasar taro. A wasu kalmomin, mutum ne da wanzuwar biyu da muhimman hakkokin ka'idojin - zamantakewa da na halitta.

Gwamnati da jama'a

Spencer kwayoyin ka'idar jihar ce cewa jihar mamaye mutane a matsayin dukan Marinjãyi a kan ta bijiro da batun kafa sassa. A daidai wannan lokaci da gwamnatin yana da wajibai cewa dole ne cika. Domin for Kwayoyin zuwa aiki yadda ya kamata, kana bukatar wani lafiya jiki. Kuma kawai da hukumomi za su ƙayyade ko da mazauninsu a kasar yana da wani m da kuma farin ciki rai.

Organic ka'idar da asalin ya furta cewa, a cikin taron da cuta cutar a jihar da ake canjawa wuri zuwa duk da ayyuka. Alal misali, lokacin da tattalin arzikin shan wahala daga cin hanci da rashawa. Sa'an nan, da shi da aka nuna a rushewar rayuwar mutane. Fada jindadin take kaiwa zuwa tashin hankali da kuma sauran kawo hadari ga zaman lafiyar na mamaki. A jihar da kuma jama'a don ƙirƙirar wani tsarin a cikin abin da duk abin da aka juna. Wannan manufa ne dalilin cewa gwamnati shortcomings aka nuna a cikin rayuwar jama'a.

A na gaba mataki na cigaban dan Adam

Abin mamaki, kwayoyin ka'idar a fannin kimiyyar siyasa na da saiwoyinsa a ka'idar juyin halitta na Darwin. A lokacin, Birtaniya masanin kimiyya sanya wani real kimiyya da juyin juya halin, bayar da shawara cewa dukan jinsin ne sakamakon gwagwarmayar rayuwa da kuma cigaba daga tsara zuwa tsara.

Darwin ya bayyana cewa, mutum ya samu daga gare su birai. Proponents na Organic ka'idar jihar amfani da wannan rubutu. Suna tambayar tambayoyi game da abin da m mataki na cigaban dan Adam? Organic ka'idar yayi da kansa ta muhawwara da martani. Development mutane ya kai ga cewa su a haɗe a cikin jihar institute. Wannan shi ne gaba mataki na juyin ci gaba. A wannan jiki da ikon (jihar) ya aikata aiki na kwakwalwa, yayin da ƙananan azuzuwan al'umma samar da muhimmanci ayyuka na dukan tsarin.

kwayoyin sunadarai

A kimiyya, akwai ba kawai kwayoyin ka'idar jihar. Wannan ra'ayi nasa ne kimiyyar siyasa da kuma ilimin halayyar zaman jama'a. Duk da haka, ka'idar da irin wannan sunan wanzu a wasu kimiyya tarbiyya. Wannan sunadarai. All guda XIX karni ka'idar tsarin gudanar da mahadi da aka tsara a cikin shi. Discoverer laurels wannan lokaci ya tafi zuwa Rasha masanin kimiyya Aleksandru Butlerovu.

Abubuwan da ake bukata fitowan ka'idar, immortalized da sunan sunadarai, ci gaba a kan shekaru masu yawa. Da farko, da masu bincike ya lura cewa kungiyoyin na atoms iya motsawa daga daya kwayoyin zuwa wani canzawa. Suka kira radicals. Duk da haka, bai yi wani bayani ga wannan anomaly, chemists iya ba. Bugu da kari, shi ne har yanzu zargi da ka'idar da atomic tsarin kayan. Wadannan sabani hana ci gaban kimiyya. Don matsawa gaba, shi da ake bukata a babban cigaba.

Abubuwan da ake bukata sabon ka'idar

A hankali tara a cikin kwayoyin sunadarai mafi ban sha'awa facts game da carbon. Har ila yau, a cikin XIX karni, da aka gano, amma ba a bayyana isomers - da abu, wanda ya m abun da ke ciki, amma mallaka daban-daban Properties. Fridrih Veler (a shahara sunadarai daga lokaci) idan aka kwatanta da kwayoyin sunadarai na m gandun daji, ta haka amince muraran cewa shi ya kasance daya daga cikin mafi slozhnoponimanaemyh kimiyya tarbiyya.

Wasu motsi ya fara ne a cikin 1850s. Da farko, Birtaniya sunadarai Edward Frankland gano sabon abu na valence - da ikon da kwayoyin halitta don ƙirƙirar sinadaran shaidu. Sa'an nan, a cikin 1858, wani muhimmin samu a lokaci guda kuma da kansa sanya Agusta Kekulé da Archibald Cooper. Sun gano cewa, da carbon atoms iya juna ta samar da daban-daban haihuwarka.

bude Butlerova

Har ila yau a 1858 da yawa daga cikin abokan aiki gaba na Alexander Butlerov. Ka'idarsa hanyoyin gudanar da mahadi ya ba tukuna aka tsara, amma ya yi magana da amincewa a game da rukuni na kwayoyin halitta a hadaddun kwayoyin. Haka kuma, Rasha masanin kimiyya zai iya sanin yanayin wannan sabon abu. Ya yi imani da cewa kungiyar na kwayoyin halitta ne saboda da sinadaran dangantaka.

Saboda haka, Butlerov ya waje na msar tambayar tsarin, wanda aka gina fiye da sauran mashahuran chemists (da fari, Sharl Zherar). Quite lokaci mai tsawo ya yi shi kadai. Kuma bayan kawai 'yan muhimmanci msar tambayar nasarori Butlerof yanke shawarar raba su ideas tare da abokan aiki.

Kadan-sani a Turai, masu bincike na farko ya sanar da kansa a kan tarurruka da aka gudanar Paris Chemical Society. Yana Butlerov tsara da yawa daga cikin ka'idojin, wanda aka sa'an nan tunawa da ka'idar kwayoyin abubuwa. A musamman, an nuna cewa, ban da radicals, akwai aikin kungiyoyin. Haka nan da nan aka mai suna tsarin da wani ɓaɓɓake daga kwayoyin kwayoyin, aka ƙaddara da dũkiyõyinsu.

Rasha bincike Theory

By tsakiyar XIX karni sinadaran kimiyya ya tunawa da yawa facts cewa ba ci gaba a cikin wani na yau da kullum ra'ayi. Yana da aka ta kuma miƙa Alexander Butlerov. A 1861, yayin da a wani taro a Jamus birnin Speyer, ya karanta wani sauyi a cikin muhimmancin da rahoton "A da sinadaran tsarin abubuwa."

Jigon da jawabin Butlerova ya kamar haka. Sunadaran a cikin kwayoyin guda biyu zuwa juna bisa ga nasa valence. A kan kaddarorin abubuwa shafi ba kawai su gwada yawa da kuma gwajin kwari abun da ke ciki. Suna bayyana a matsayin wadannan dokokin, kuma domin da atomic shaidu a cikin kwayoyin. Wadannan kananan barbashi tasiri juna da kuma canja Properties daga cikin abu a matsayin dukan. Bayan da wasanni Aleksandra Butlerova a kimiyya bayyana ka'idar tsarin gudanar da mahadi. An samu nasarar karɓa kira zuwa ga duk tambayoyin da cewa sun tara a shekarun da suka gabata na disparate binciken.

Muhimmancin kwayoyin ka'idar

A sunadarai ka'idar da kimiyyar siyasa Butlerova Spencer ka'idar yana da yawa a cikin na kowa. A lokuta biyu shi ne guda mahaluži (abu da kuma jihar), kunsha na da yawa kananan abubuwa (sunadaran da mutane). Wannan dangantaka kayyade Properties daga cikin mamaki da ake bincika. A duk wannan, duka biyu da rukunan bayyana kusan lokaci guda.

A ra'ayi cewa abu Properties ne dogara a kan kaddarorin da kumshin barbashi, kuma daga baya ya zama tushen ga duk gargajiya da kullum yarda da ka'idar da sinadaran tsarin. Duk da haka, Butlerova nasarori bai kare a can. Daga cikin abubuwan, da ra'ayoyin kafa tushen da dokoki da wanda masana kimiyya daga baya koya domin sanin tsarin da al'amarin.

Rasha sunadarai fĩfĩta su gudanar da wani wucin gadi roba da kuma halayen da su taimako gano radicals ingancin daki-daki. The bincike bar wani arziki rubuta al'adunmu. Ya rubuce kowane daki-daki su gwaji. Yana da wannan al'ada ya kasance a ka'idar tsarin kwayoyin sunadarai. Its akai wani mai-arziki gwaji kwarewa Butlerova.

Origin abubuwa da isomerism

Kawai tare da nassi na lokaci, shi ya bayyana yadda manyan darajar da kwayoyin ka'idar, da alaƙa Aleksandrom Butlerovym. Ta hanyar koyarwarsa ya kayyade hanyar bincike kuma don mãsu mayẽwa, kuma akida mabiyansa. Alal misali, Rasha sunadarai biya yawa da hankali ga halayen da bazuwar. Ya yi imani cewa, tare da taimakon gwaje-gwajen da su zai iya sa mafi m karshe game da tsarin sunadarai.

Amfani da kayan abinci na da kansa kwayoyin ka'idar Butlerov karatu a daki-daki, sabon abu na isomerism, da manufa da abin da aka bayyana a sama. Sa'an nan, da shi murna zukatan mutane da yawa m masana kimiyya. Dauke da fitar da gwaji don gwaji, Butlerov ya iya samu a manyan butyl barasa, don bayyana da kaddarorin da kuma tabbatar da wanzuwar isomers wannan hadaddun kwayoyin halitta. Binciken na fice sunadarai ya ci gaba da dalibai: Vladimir Markovnikov da Alexander Popov.